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& CREDITS.

Original site content

© 2026 Afseth Millar Limited. Copyright in original editorial text, site design and original code is reserved where applicable. This notice does not claim ownership of third-party data, publications, standards, software, names or marks, or restrict reuse permitted by their licences.

Illustration

The battery-cell hero and original concept artwork were generated with AI for Battery Observer. Maps, charts and table patterns within the hero are illustrative, not evidence figures. No exclusive copyright claim is made over the AI-generated elements.

Research and map data

End-of-life statistical comparisons use Eurostat env_wasbat and env_waspb, retrieved 13 October 2026. © European Union. Battery Observer selects subsets and prepares calculations; Eurostat is not responsible for those interpretations. Provisional and imputed flags and national reporting boundaries are retained.

Bibliographic metadata: OpenAlex, made available under CC0. Rankings, calculations and visualisations are prepared by Battery Observer. Rights in the underlying scholarly publications remain with their respective rights holders; this site does not reproduce their full texts.

Geographic boundaries: Natural Earth public-domain data, distributed in TopoJSON form through world-atlas. See the world-atlas software notice below.

Manufacturing-map locality coordinates: GeoNames, CC BY 4.0. Town centres are matched to the recorded locality and adapted for display; they are not surveyed factory coordinates. Unresolved positions are withheld.

IEA sources and end of life

IEA (2026), Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026, IEA, Paris, July 2026 edition, page 70. © IEA, CC BY 4.0. The 2025 EV-and-storage energy overview is adapted by Battery Observer; no IEA endorsement. Overlapping scopes and rounded bounds are retained.

IEA (2026), Global EV Outlook 2026, IEA, Paris. © IEA. Report content used here is licensed under CC BY 4.0, subject to the IEA terms. Battery Observer has adapted the presentation, selected figures and prepared its own graphics. These adaptations do not imply IEA endorsement. The report licence does not extend to third-party material, logos, photographs or separately licensed datasets.

End-of-life figures: Eurostat, env_wasbat, 2023 reporting year, from the official Eurostat extract retrieved 13 October 2026. © European Union. Battery Observer selected the reporting subset and calculated the displayed shares. Eurostat is not responsible for these calculations or interpretations. Eurostat copyright and reuse information. The source definitions describe the matched-country and two-category denominator.

Historical application charts also draw on IEA Global EV Outlook 2025 and IEA chart releases, credited beside each visual. ACEA registration data retain their source and comparison-vintage qualifications.

Invention and measured technology

Circularity invention data: European Patent Office, Battery circularity (2026), Table 2. Patent-family categories can overlap; calculations and graphics are prepared by Battery Observer. Original report rights remain with the EPO.

Tested-cell data: Sandia National Laboratories / BatteryArchive; Preger et al. (2020), Degradation of Commercial Lithium-Ion Cells as a Function of Chemistry and Cycling Conditions. Individual-cell ratios are derived by Battery Observer under the stated protocol; no source figures or full paper are reproduced.

US operating battery inventory: US Energy Information Administration, EIA-860 annual data, reporting year 2025. Primary-use aggregates and energy/power ratios are calculated by Battery Observer; reported uses are distinct from measured dispatch.

Industrial equipment and recovered output

Regional industrial-truck shipment comparisons use the public FEM/WITS Q4 2025 continent summary, published July 2026. Original source definitions, class boundaries and geography are linked beside the graphic. Bergsöe lead-alloy production uses Boliden’s 2025 Annual and Sustainability Report, printed pages 21 and 185. Factual-data comparisons and calculations are by Battery Observer; source documents and graphics retain their rights and are not redistributed.

Issuer financial statements

Selected actual cash-flow comparisons use LG Energy Solution’s March 2026 offering circular, Samsung SDI’s 2024 and 2025 audited consolidated statements, and CATL’s 2024 and 2025 annual reports. Original source labels, nominal currencies, reporting groups and accounting bases accompany the records. CATL’s 2023 Chinese line-item translation is unofficial. Source reports retain their rights; source documents and graphics are not redistributed.

Battery-product factory disclosures

REPT BATTERO factory output and effective-capacity comparisons use its final prospectus of 8 December 2023, printed pages 253–255; product definitions appear on pages 235–236. Figures retain the issuer’s product and period definitions. Original source documents and graphics are not redistributed.

Regulation and commercial sources

EU regulatory sources are credited to the European Union, with links to EUR-Lex and the Council beside the analysis. Other legislation, company announcements and standards remain attributable to their respective publishers and rights holders. Source links identify the evidence; they do not grant a licence to reproduce the linked material. No endorsement by a source organisation is implied.

Software licences

Original copyright and permission notices are preserved in full:

• D3 7.9.0 — Copyright 2010–2023 Mike Bostock. ISC licence notice.
• TopoJSON Client 3.1.0 — Copyright 2012–2019 Michael Bostock. ISC licence notice.
• World Atlas 2.0.2 — Copyright 2013–2019 Michael Bostock. ISC licence notice.

Typography

Barlow Condensed, DM Sans and IBM Plex Mono are served through Google Fonts. Their SIL Open Font License notices and original copyright statements are available here: Barlow Condensed, DM Sans, IBM Plex Mono.

Notices reviewed 14 October 2026. The applicable third-party licence takes precedence over the site's general copyright notice.